Egyptians

Egypt

In parallel, Egyptian Civilization (c. 3100 - 30 BC), saw hieroglyphic writing emerge around 3200 BCE, contemporaneous with or slightly after the earliest Sumerian writing. Initially used for religious texts and on monuments. Hieratic script, a cursive form used for administrative and literary purposes, developed alongside hieroglyphs. The use of writing expanded in the Old Kingdom (c. 2686 - 2181 BC) into administrative functions, religious texts, and the decoration of tombs (Pyramid Texts) and by the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055 - 1650 BC) literary texts began to flourish, including wisdom literature and tales. The script continued to evolve. Then in the New Kingdom (c. 1550 - 1070 BC) writing became more widespread. Hieroglyphs and hieratic script were used extensively, and the Amarna letters, diplomatic correspondence written in cuneiform, reflect the era's international relations. In the Late Period (c. 664 - 332 BC) the demotic script, a more simplified version of hieratic, became common for daily purposes and by the time of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305 - 30 BCE) Greek influence increased, and multilingual inscriptions like the Rosetta Stone (196 BC) featured hieroglyphic, Demotic, and Greek text, highlighting the multicultural nature of the period. In Egypt the scribal culture took on a more important role, deeply embedded in Temples and having a sacred role linked to one’s journey into the afterlife.

Thoth

Egypt has a God of writing – Thoth, an Ibis headed figure, the long, curved beak resembling a downward curving writing instrument. This shows how seriously they took this technology. He has Temples devoted to him, Hermopolis being his primary cult centre. It was known as the City of Eight (referring to the Ogdoad, a group of eight primordial deities) and was considered the heart of Thoth's worship. The remains of temples and other structures dedicated to Thoth can be found here and throughout Ancient Egypt.  He also appears in many tombs.

As the inventor of hieroglyphs, Thoth's gift of writing was critical for recording the spells, prayers, and rituals necessary for the dead to achieve a successful journey to the afterlife. The very act of inscribing these sacred texts on tomb walls, sarcophagi, and papyri was believed to activate their power.

Thoth was credited with creating the spells and prayers used in funerary texts, like the Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts, and the Book of the Dead. These texts contained spells and guidance to help the deceased navigate the dangers of the underworld and reach the afterlife safely. His words were considered powerful and magical, capable of bringing protection and guidance to the deceased.

In the Book of the Dead, Thoth records the proceedings, the weighing the heart of the deceased against the feather of Ma'at (truth and order) to determine their worthiness to enter the afterlife. Thoth would record the result, and if the individual was found worthy, they would be granted passage into the afterlife. He is also seen as a mediator between the gods and a counselor to the sun god Ra, maintaining the universe's balance and order, resolving disputes among the gods, which could affect the journey of souls to the afterlife. He could be seen as guiding and advising the souls of the deceased, providing them with the knowledge they needed to face the challenges of the underworld.

Thoth's role as the inventor and user of writing to intercede on your progress to the afterlife is unique in culture. He was a God, inventor, recorder, a mediator, a provider of magical words and spells, and a guide. His influence permeated every aspect of Egyptian funerary culture, making him one of the most important deities in the Egyptian pantheon.

Scribal class

A scribal class emerged in the service of these religious Temples and scriptoriums are to be found in temple precincts across Egypt.

Writing was an instrument of power. Pharaohs has their lives and legacies written on the walls of their Temples. Ramesses used deeply incised techniques, difficult to erase, to show and ensure his future presence. Hieroglyphic expression reached its high artistic point with Seti I, when aesthetically beautiful, high relief hieroglyphs adorned temples and tombs. Books of the Dead and other texts were placed in coffins and aided the passage into the afterlife, many other texts written upon the walls of tombs. Writing meant permanence and eternity, a God created medium that literally wrote one’s path into the afterlife. Writing’s gift was eternity.

We see in Egypt something interesting emerge, the technology of writing used to fix and control an elite who used it to proclaim their status as Gods. A writing clerisy is created to control and reinforce religious beliefs, execute laws and collect taxes. Things can be calculated and recorded. The accumulation of wealth is possible as are expressions of power. This writing clerisy has much in common with the Dark Ages in Europe, where a similar scribal class using Latin, could control what was written, published and read. Reading and writing remained the business of the elite, which they used to proclaim and impose their power. Scribal papyri have much in common with monastic manuscripts. They were often used to represent a polytheistic or monotheistic system where leaders expressed and imposed power by controlling the medium of archiving, law giving, tax collection, preaching and control.

As one of the civilisations that first invented writing we must also remember that writing, for them, was invented by the Gods, revered as a form of Godly expression. Hieroglyph means  writing of the Gods. The writing itself had sacred permanence, representing people, their status, offerings, spells and things that could be taken into the afterlife.

Ptahhotep

Ptahhotep was a vizier under King Isesi of the Fifth Dynasty. His Instruction of Ptahhotep is one of the oldest pieces of Egyptian literature, dating back to the Old Kingdom, around 2400-2300 BC.

Ptahhotep links learning with morality, suggesting that true wisdom involves understanding and living by the principles of Maat (harmony, balance, order, and justice). It is not a textbook in the modern sense but a collection of ethical and moral teachings designed to guide the behavior and thoughts of young men, especially those aspiring to roles in the civil administration. It reflects the values of ancient Egyptian society, where education was regarded as the means to cultivate a person's character and intellect.

Ptahhotep stresses the importance of respecting those who teach, suggesting that a good student is one who listens attentively and respects their instructor. Learning is portrayed as a lifelong pursuit, beneficial and necessary for a successful life. Wisdom is depicted as a treasure that provides a more valuable legacy than physical wealth.

One of the most repeated themes is the importance of being silent and listening to others, especially those who are older and more experienced. Listening as a profitable skill

People “respect the silent” but “listening also benefits the listener” and “"As for the ignorant man who does not listen, he accomplishes nothing. He equates knowledge with ignorance, the useless with the harmful. He does everything which is detestable, so people get angry with him each day." Understanding comes through listening "If he who listens, listens fully, then he who listens becomes he who understands… He who listens becomes the master of what is profitable."  In a final statement “Only speak when you have something worth saying."

The text advises students to be self-controlled and patient, implying that these are qualities necessary for learning and wisdom.

This reflects the educational method where learning was achieved through listening to the spoken wisdom and memorizing it.

The ability to speak well and persuasively is also presented as an essential skill, a central part of one's education. Ptahhotep advises the reader to speak only after careful thought and to use eloquent and calm speech.

Teaching is a matter of teaching tradition, not the generation of new ideas or critical thinking. This is a culture of order and stability, one of beliefs and convictions, not scepticism and the search for new ideas. "As for you, teach your disciple the words of tradition. May he act as a model for the children of the great, that they may find in him the understanding and justice of every heart that speaks to him, since man is not born wise."

Obedience is valued, especially between father and son "How wonderful is a son who obeys his father!" again with the emphasis on listening 'A son is kind-natured when he knows how to listen.” Knowledge and learning should not lead to vanity and arrogance "May your heart never be vain because of what you know. Take counsel from the ignorant as well as the wise..."

Dua-Khety

Dua-Khety wrote The Instruction of Dua-Khety for his son Pepi during the Middle Kingdom, probably during the 12th Dynasty, around 1991-1802 BC. Also known as The Satire of the Trades or The Instructions of Any, it emphasises the value of education and the profession of the scribe over other more manual trades.

Dua-Khety, writes in dialogue, about taking his son to school and explains the advantages of being a scribe. He describes various manual trades, decrying their working conditions, especially manual labour, compared to the life of a scribe. The scribe is a superior position in Egypt’s hierarchical system, is not physically demanding and brings with it respect in society and prospects for advancement.

We have here an early schism in teaching and learning between an educated elite and the rest who are seen as workers. Writing is seen as the differentiator, as skill and a profession that offers advantage and social mobility. There is the additional suggestion that it leads to more ethical understanding and behaviour. It can be seen as the earliest example of defining and extolling the life of a knowledge worker.

Any

Any is the supposed author of The Kemyt or the Satirical Letter, an ancient Egyptian text that critiques the educational system. Any may have been the author but Egyptians rarely had signed authors and such works were often unattributed and copied many times. On dates, the work is believed to date from the Middle Kingdom period but exact dating has been difficult.The work is satirical and ironic and most of it has been reassembled from ostrica found at the workers village in Luxor, Deir el Medina.

The text describes a student’s efforts to become a scribe and has several things to say about teaching and learning. Learning is portrayed as long hours of memorisation. Strict discipline is enforced along with corporal punishment. Although it is satirical about the learner the upsides of being a scribe are also described, as a job of status and advancement. Being a scribe and scholar is something generational “Persevere in writing, and when you have a son, instruct in writings… as my father instructed me in writings”. It is also seen as aspirational “So make a son, instructed in writings, For a secretary in any place of his of the Residence, he cannot be poor in it.” The teacher was clearly expected to apply physical punishment as a matter of course and ‘exercises his arm on the bad pupil…. struck after need’

Bibliography

Wente 1990. Edward F. Wente. Letters from Ancient Egypt.Atlanta

https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/literature/kmyt.html